![]() ![]() In spite of significant research efforts, argument technologies do not seem poised to scale up as much as most commentators would hope or even predict. It is only the ‘true solution’-the solution against the argument, of which there is always only one-that determines the fallacy actually committed). However, if the solution is ‘against the man’ then this is not, properly speaking, the fallacy committed in the argument. However, each fallacious argument does have a unique solution against the argument, called the ‘true solution’ (in other words, what fallacy a fallacious argument commits is determined by how it is solved. (MAN-ARG) The solutions of fallacious arguments are exclusively either “against the man” or “against the argument.” (10) (F-ARG) Each (type of) fallacy has a unique solution (namely, the opposite of whatever causes the fallacy), but each fallacious argument does not. (nME-FACT) All arguments that are not against the expression are “against the fact.” (FACT-ED) All fallacious arguments against the fact are fallacies extra dictionem (it is unclear whether the converse is true). Being “dependent on mere expression” and “dependent on language” are not the same (instances of the latter form a proper subset of instances of the former). (AMB&ID-ME) The set of fallacies due to ambiguity and fallacies in dictione together comprise the set of arguments said to be “dependent on mere expression”. (AMB-nID) Not all fallacies due to ambiguity are fallacies in dictione. (ID-nAMB) Not all fallacies in dictione are due to ambiguity. (ID-ED) All fallacies are exclusively either fallacies in dictione or fallacies extra dictionem. ![]() (AR-F) ‘Apparent refutations’ and ‘fallacies’ name the same thing. (AR-PFC) All sophistical refutations are exclusively either ‘apparent refutations’ or ‘proofs of false conclusions’. Darwin's preposterous story in the Origin about a bear giving birth to a kangaroo, which he dropped in the second edition, was in fact aimed at Huxley.įrom Aristotle’s Sophistical Refutations the following classifications are put forward and defended through extensive excerpts from the text. When Darwin wrote in the Origin of Species that the word plan gives no explanation, he may have had Huxley in mind. Huxley dropped the word archetype when Richard Owen linked it to Plato's ideal forms, replacing it with common plan. Richard Owen introduced the distinction between homology and analogy to anatomists, but the word homology did not enter Darwin's vocabulary until 1848, when he used the morphological concept of archetype in his work on Cirripedia. Darwin believed that his theory could explain the difference. The naturalists William Sharp Macleay, Hugh Strickland, and George Waterhouse worked to distinguish two kinds of relationship, affinity and analogy. Huxley agreed with John Stuart Mill's rejection of William Whewell's sympathy for Linnaeus. Huxley, trained in physiology and anatomy, was a professional biologist while Darwin was a gentleman naturalist. This private and long-forgotten dispute exposes important divisions within Victorian biology. Darwin used human races as a model for his view. ![]() Darwin believed that the natural system should express genealogy while Huxley insisted that classification must stand on its own basis, independent of evolution. Thomas Henry Huxley and Charles Darwin discovered in 1857 that they had a fundamental disagreement about biological classification. The reasoning structure of each type of attack will be distinguished from the analysis of the tactics used to increase its effectiveness and conceal its weaknesses. This twofold level of investigation is aimed at distinguishing the different roles that ad hominem have in a dialogue and bringing to light their hidden dimensions. They involve tactics for arousing emotions such as fear, hate or contempt, or ridiculing the interlocutor. They can trigger implicit arguments from consequences. They can be considered as premises for further arguments based on signs or generalizations. ![]() Personal attacks are not only multifaceted dialogical moves, but also complex argumentative strategies. They can block the dialogue, trigger value judgments, influence decisions, force the interlocutor to withdraw a viewpoint and undermine his arguments. Why are personal attacks so powerful? In political debates, speeches, discussions and campaigns negative character judgments, aggressive charges and charged epithets are used for different purposes. ![]()
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